Quality control and supply chains

Quality control is one of the weakest points in the safer nicotine product (SNP) landscape in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) [^1]. With limited regulation and no consistent product standards, counterfeit and substandard items are common.

Many safer nicotine products (SNPs) enter low- and middle-income countries through informal or weakly regulated trade routes, with little oversight of manufacturing quality, nicotine concentration, or chemical composition. Evidence from Nigeria illustrates these risks clearly: an analysis of e-cigarette refill fluids labelled “0 mg/mL nicotine” found that over half (51.7%) of products purchased in Nigeria contained nicotine, and that all products with higher nicotine concentrations were counterfeit, produced under brand-jacked labels [^1]. Such mislabelling and counterfeit production increase safety risks, undermine consumer trust, and reinforce misconceptions about the harms of safer nicotine products in settings without reliable testing or certification systems.

Supply chains are similarly fragile. Most SNPs are imported from high-income countries or major manufacturing hubs such as China, as very few LMICs have local production capacity. This dependence exposes markets to price fluctuations, shipping delays, and import restrictions. High transport costs, limited warehousing, and inconsistent customs procedures further disrupt supply, pushing retailers and consumers toward informal channels that lack oversight and reduce government revenue.

Limited local manufacturing also restricts opportunities for technology transfer and economic participation in the growing harm reduction sector. Developing regulated, local production and distribution systems could improve quality, stabilise prices, and expand access.

Until such systems are established, LMICs will continue to face unreliable supply chains and weak quality control, limiting the potential of safer nicotine products to support tobacco harm reduction.